UAE Legal and Ethical Issues in the Media

UAE Legal and Ethical Issues in the Media RESEARCH BASED REFLECTIVE PAPER ON MEDIA JOURNALISM IN THE UAE WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES 1. Introduction Media originated with the advent of newspapers and magazines and later on broadened its perspective to radio, Television, cinema, internet, and so on. This broadening accordingly multiplied reach to mass audiences across nations. Media has the capability to reach masses in no time. This inherent quality necessitates regulations owing to which Media law came into existence. The UAE also has a constitution of Laws governing Media and a code of ethics for the journalists. This paper analyses on Media with the following considerations. Are the regulations of Media laws in the UAE in the right approach? Do the journalists in the UAE enjoy enough freedom? What is the level of interference of the governing bodies on the media? Are the journalists publishing ethical and authentic content that will not harm the society? What is the effect of the contemporary and emerging media have on the society? Considering the unique cultural situation in the UAE, this study analyses the media laws and the journalistic code of ethics with the contemporary and the emerging media and to understand if Media laws have broadened and expanded with respect to the new media and its demands. 2. Media Ethics Vs Law 2.1. Definition Media ethicsis the subdivision ofapplied ethicsdealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of  media, including  broadcast media,  film,  theatre, arts,  print, and the internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging fromwar journalism  to  Benetton  advertising. Media law can be defined as laws that regulate the activities of the Media. 2.2. Scope Media ethics is a subject which deals with the perspective of a perfect media person who takes ownership of the information published by him without causing harm and sensation to the public. Sometimes what is legally correct may not be ethically appropriate. The media person is expected to do a lot of psychological analysis on the value system combined with social responsibility. Media Law is a legal field that regulates the Advertising Broadcasting Censorship Confidentiality Contempt Copyright Defamation Entertainment law Freedom of information Information Technology Internet and on-line services Privacy Telecommunications  (Wikipedia). 2.3. Relevance The SPJ Code of ethics is a statement of abiding principles which gives a clear picture on the journalistic practices. Although it is not a set of rules, it directs the journalists in their task of publishing, regardless of medium. This code makes sense as a whole only and it cannot be used in bits. The SPJ code recommends the following: Seek Truth and Report It Minimize Harm Act Independently Be Accountable and Transparent  (SPJ Code of Ethics, 2014). 3. Why media ethics matter? Media has created a major impact on the social and political sectors. The reach of media and various forms of communication has generated a mass effect in the public and furthermore the effect it creates in each individual has varied with respect to multiple factors. 3.1. Social Impact On a social level, media has brought about the greatest impact. The media publications have been shaped on the basis of different cultures, races, genders, religions and sexual orientations in the society. The perception of the two main elements, the entertainment and the news differ. The representations are valued at face value in entertainment sector. There are also cases of unfair stereotyping which causes a major social impact. Unfair Beauty Standards is one such practice where the beautiful women are often in favorable roles, portrayed as successful always. These standards in media have an adverse effect on the psychology of the women. Failing to meet those standards or adopting those characteristics have even forced them to dejection and sometimes depression too. Other practices are sexual orientation, religion, devastating mental and physical health of children and older generation, principles of extremist groups which can cause unnecessary sensations in the society. 3.2. Political Impact On a political level, media is capable of influencing the society to a larger extent. Media can advocate for a particular political party. Construction of the news is another way in which the mass media can have an influence over the masses. The media people are bound to abide by the media laws. There are instances when the government or the ruling party enforces media to project only what they deem appropriate. Owing to its power to build public judgment, media influence can create or dissolve the government. Attributed to the high levels of public impact, both in social and political grounds, ethical practice becomes inevitable in Media. As a matter of fact while dealing with the Media Laws, what is legal may not be ethical necessarily. 4. Is there any need to ‘regulate’ (media law) media? With relevance to the UAE market an analysis on the contemporary and the emerging media will throw light on the significance of Media Ethics. The process of convergence of Telecommunications and Broadcasting has been in the process of entirely changing the media globally. Convergence has brought together mobile telecommunication operators and the television broadcasters to use technologies like DVB-H facilitating people to watch television as well as internet content in the mobile. Media has the dangerous effect of inducing fake ideas through advertisements. People are fascinated by media’s influence to buy harmful or substandard products. Sometimes, Media develops unnecessary sensation and distorts truth just to attract customers. Because of its power to build public judgment, the influence of media can create or dissolve a government. Some of the emerging media have no control over the content as the Media laws are not refined in detail. In a conservative unique society like that of the UAE, the content may not be as per the strictly adhered society norms and could create social impact. The information sharing in the social networking sites are bound to cause cyber crimes. The media pivots in bringing specifics of all major political circumstances, stands and other scenarios. This helps people to understand their rights and make better decisions. The impact of Media can also create agitation and political turnarounds(Arab Media Outlook 2007-2011). The UAE requires a clear media law that provides absolute clarity protecting the journalists and at the same time defining boundaries to ensure the responsibility of the press. The other countries with established media freedom have these boundaries created over the years through the legal system. The recently released guidelines set by Abu Dhabi Media Zone, a media-creation free zone anchored by the content-incubator TwoFour54 carries clear guidelines(Gulfnews.com, 2012). Human Rights Watch has reported that a new law has been drafted to regulate the media which hampers freedom of expression and unduly interferes with the medias freedom to report on sensitive subjects. The pending law also allows the government to decide the organizations that can operate in the country and also interfere in the selection of journalists. The law imposes unreasonable civil penalties that could wash out media outlets completely and subtly impose restrictions on the published content. It also enforces media organizations to pay an unspecified security deposit that set a powerful barrier for independent and small press organizations(Human Rights Watch, 2009). 5. Media and Journalism in the UAE Code of ethics is based on the Following Principles†¦ Accuracy in reporting Appropriate acknowledgement of sources Avoiding discrimination Avoiding sensationalism Avoiding the fanning of public feeling Confidentiality Credibility Eliminating and/or minimizing harm (especially to children) Fairness to all Freedom and integrity Impartiality Innocence until proven guilty Professionalism, especially in relation to plagiarism Refusing to accept bribes and advantage Respect for public feeling Respect for the truth Respecting personal privacy Rightful acquisition of information Transparency Upholding human rights Understanding this code of ethics in reality, it offers a minimal safety for the journalists. A revised media law in the UAE is the need of the hour. The lack of effective protections for journalists has brought down the ranking of freedom in the UAE to the last and the scholars in media call out for revision. Dr Abdulkhaleq Abdulla, a professor at UAE University, after a thorough study has brought this issue to the attention of Foreign Minister Sheikh Abdullah Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, chairman of the UAEs National Media Council and has suggested immediate amendments  (Gulfnews.com, 2012). 6. Media law and Ethics in the UAE The press freedom rankings of UAE is 112. The features like pervasive self-censorship and Internet blocking policy have pushed the country to the â€Å"not free† category. The freedom enjoyed by the journalists operating in other countries is far more compared to the journalists in the UAE making most of the media zones to set up regional centres out of the United Arab Emirates. The UAE Constitution does not encourage freedom of expression. Article 30 states that â€Å"Freedom of opinion and expressing it verbally, in writing or by other means of expression shall be guaranteed within the limits of law† (Dr. Matt J. Duffy 2013). The penal code as well as the media law pose numerous restrictions on journalism and freedom of speech. Also, the Constitution specifically guarantees personal freedom in religious worship, movement and having associations. The UAE constitution contains points that define personal freedom but does not outline regulations for the society as a whole  (Dr. Matt J. Duffy 2013). The UAE penal code Article 378 strictly prohibits defamation against the royal family and has rights to criminalize journalists for publicizing secrets of royal family life. Publicly insulting the UAE’s rulers is a crime according to Articles 176 and 8 of the UAE penal code. Article 312 of Federal Law No. 3 of the 1987 Penal Code of the UAE has blasphemy laws that protect Islam and other religions from defamation  (Dr. Matt J. Duffy 2013). Abusing any form of sacred and Islamic rites or blaspheming any of the divine religions is considered a crime and penalties are chargeable for these crimes  (Dr. Matt J. Duffy 2013). 7. Reflections The technological developments have brought into life to contemporary and emerging media with their own positive and negative effects on the society as well as the people in the media. Although there have been revisions in the Media law in the UAE since the time it was formulated owing to globalization, the media laws lack clarity. The fact is that it requires several amendments in comparison with the Media Laws of the global counterparts. When it comes to freedom although it looks like the freedom is highly restricted. Media contributes to a transformation in the culture, fashion and social values of the masses influencing lifestyles of communities and culture of nations. Media transforms the attitudes and beliefs of the people and is responsible for influencing our daily activities. Media has a significant role in refining the society by opening views against racism, gender bias, poverty, and spreading awareness about the need for world peace. Media laws have been an ambiguity for the journalists. The UAE Constitution does not guarantee freedom of expression. Much of their provisions tell journalists what they cant do rather than offering protections for their actions. In a nutshell, code of ethics in reality it offers a minimal safety for the journalists. The law imposes enormous civil penalties that could completely wipe out media outlets and silence disagreeing voices found to violate the huge but subtle constraints on content. Media organizations found to have defamed or slandered senior government officials or members of the royal family are charged penalties. 8. Recommendations The media organizations have to bring about constructive changes within the organization and communicate clarity both in media laws and ethics to its personnel to have a positive influence on the society. The Media Laws also have to be refined to give sufficient freedom to the media to serve better. Media organizations, governing bodies, media laws, media ethics, skilled human resources together have to work together to revise the media laws as and when new media emerge. This helps in bringing out the authentic information to the public without creating unnecessary sensations. Media ought to be regulated failing which the society will face unnecessary complications in politics, culture, values, beliefs etc., The public should also abide by the laws when delivering opinions and expressions in social media to develop a healthy society. UAE women taking up lead positions in Media organizations can also contribute to peace and upliftment of the society. In short, publishing authentic content regulated by media ethics and laws should be the goal of the media. 9. Conclusion The UAE Constitution does not empower Media and Journalism to publish all facts truth. Practical constraints are plenty in this field. The journalists as well as the media organizations are charged huge penalties the governing authorities have all rights to deem content as inappropriate or to block the websites. These conditions prevailing could suppress the truth and actual facts may be darkened or completely blocked by the media. The development of the country largely depends on the people and their potential to acquaint the economical developments, the political circumstances, the technological evolutions, the business standards, the social interactions, the international affairs etc., the main source of information being Media, the freedom of media plays a significant role in the development of the country. Moreover, the fortified opinion of the scholars is to revise Media laws and to enhance the freedom. Refining the media laws and the ethics code by giving more clarity to the ambiguities will give more scope for the journalists by amplifying their freedom and to do more justice in their work. Subsequently, the fine borders have to be defined meticulously to avoid misuse of freedom resulting in unnecessary sensations in the country. Taking into consideration the culture, religion, people etc., the Media laws and the media ethics code have to be conjointly revised for constructive changes in the country. 10. References / Bibliography. Page 1 of 9

Cbse Chemistry Notes for 11 and 12

Supplementary Textual Material in Chemistry for Class XI & Class XII 1 Acknowledgements CBSE ADVISORS Shri Vineet Joshi, I. A. S. , Chairman, CBSE Shri Shashi Bhushan, Director (Acad. ), CBSE CONVENOR & EDITOR Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. DEVELOPMENT TEAM Prof. A. K. Bakhshi Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi. Dr. Anju Srivastava Hindu College, University of Delhi. Dr. Vimal Rarh S. G. T. B. Khalsa College, University of Delhi. Dr. Geetika Bhalla Hindu College, University of Delhi. Ms. Anupama Sharma Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi. MEMBER COORDINATOR Dr.Srijata Das, Education Officer, CBSE 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Class XI Unit 5 : States of Matter 5. 7. 1 Kinetic Energy and Molecular Speeds 5. 7. 2 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of molecular speeds Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1. Second Law of Thermodynamics 6. 8. Third Law of Thermodynamics Unit 7 : Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH of Buffer Solutions Class XII Unit 16 : Chemistry in Everyd ay Life 16. 4. 2. 1 Antioxidants 3 Unit 5: States of Matter 5. 7. 1 KINETIC ENERGY AND MOLECULAR SPEEDS As you have studied in the previous section the molecules of a gas are always in motion and are colliding with each other and with the walls of the container.Due to these collisions the speeds and the kinetic energies of the individual molecules keep on changing. However at a given temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules remains constant. If at a given temperature, n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. Then, the total kinetic energy (EK) of the gas at this temperature is given by where m is the mass of the molecule. The corresponding average kinetic energy ( If the following term Then the average kinetic energy is given by where c is given by 4 ) of the gas will beThis ‘c’ is known as root-mean-square speed. As the name implies, to calculate c, first take the squares of the individual speeds , then their mean and finally the square root of the mean. It can be shown that c is related to temperature by The average kinetic energy depends only on absolute temperature and is related to absolute temperature by the expression where k = Boltzmann constant = 1. 38 x 10-23 J K-1 In the case of gases, one also talks of two other speeds, namely, average speed and most-probable speed. The average speed ( ) at a given temperature is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of different molecules of the gas. . e, where n1 molecules have speed v1, n2 molecules have speed v2, n3 molecules have speed v3, and so on. The relationship between average speed and temperature T is given by The most probable speed ( ) of a gas at a given temperature is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules at that temperature. Unlike average speed and root mean square speed, the most probable speed cannot be expressed in terms of the individual molecular speeds. The most probable speed ( ) is related t o absolute temperature (T) by the expression 5 Relationship between different types of molecular speedsThe three types of molecular speeds, namely, most probable speed ( ), average speed ( ) and root mean square speed (c) of a gas at a given temperature are related to each other as follows: For a particular gas, at a particular temperature, It follows from the above relationships that Example: Calculate the root mean square, average and most probable speeds of oxygen molecules at 27 oC. Solution: Given data: Molar mass of oxygen, M = 32 g mol-1 = 0. 032 kg mol-1 Temperature, t = 27 oC T = (27 + 273) K = 300 K 6 Expressions to be used: Root mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, Actual calculationsRoot mean square speed, Average speed, Most probable speed, 5. 7. 2 MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS The speeds of the individual molecules of a gas do not remain constant. They keep on changing due to inter molecular collisions and due to collisions with t he walls of the container. However, at a given temperature, the distribution of molecular speeds remains constant. This distribution of molecular speeds is given by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution law. 7 For a given gas, at a given temperature, the distribution curve of molecular speeds is shown in Figure 5. 7. 1 Figure 5. 7. 1.Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curve You can see from the distribution curve that it is the plot of molecular speed vs the fraction of molecules. The important features of this distribution curve are: (i) The fraction of molecules having too low or too high speeds is very small. (ii) There is a certain speed for which the fraction of molecules is maximum. This speed is known as most probable speed. (iii) The most probable speed of a gas, is the speed possessed by the maximum number of molecules of the gas at a given temperature and it corresponds to the peak of the curve. Since the most probable speed ( xpression ) is related to absolute temperature T by the I t means that at the same temperature, lighter gases shall move faster than heavier gases as is evident from the distribution curves of chlorine and nitrogen gases in Figure 5. 7. 2. 8 Figure 5. 7. 2. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for chlorine and nitrogen gases at 300K Effect of temperature In Figure 5. 7. 3. are given the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves of a gas at three different temperatures T1, T2 and T3 such that T1>T2>T3. Figure 5. 7. 3. Maxwell Boltzmann distribution curves for a gas at three different temperatures 9It can be seen from these distribution curves that as the temperature increases 1. The entire curve shifts towards right. 2. The most probable speed increases. 3. The fraction of molecules having most probable speed decreases. 4. The curve becomes broader in the middle range indicating that more molecules have speeds near to the most probable speed. 5. The fraction of molecules having higher speeds increases. 6. The fraction of molecules having lower speed decreases. It may be noted that the total area under each of the curves remains the same as the sum of fractions of molecules remains unaltered on changing the temperature. 0 EXERCISE 1. Calculate (i) root mean square speed (ii) average speed and (iii) most probable speed of CO2 molecules at 700 K . 2. A sample of a gas contains 15 molecules with a speed of 3 m s-1, 25 molecules with a speed of 5 m s-1 and 30 molecules with a speed of 8 m s-1. Calculate root mean square speed of these molecules. 3. Calculate the temperature at which the average speed of oxygen equals that of hydrogen at 20 K. 4. Calculate the temperatures at which the root mean square speed, average speed and the most probable speed of oxygen gas are all equal to 1500 m s-1. Answers 1. i. 629. 92, m s-1 ii. 80. 50 m s-1 iii. 514. 33 m s-1 2. 6. 187 m s-1 3. 320 K 4. T for root mean square speed= 2886 K, T for the average speed = 3399 K, T for most probable speed = 4330 K 11 12 Unit 6 : Thermodynamics 6. 6. 1 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS You have already studied in the previous sections that the first law of thermodynamics deals only with the law of conservation of energy and it gives no information about the criteria for feasibility of a given physical or chemical process. This law is always obeyed whether a given process occurs on its own or is made to occur with the help of an external agency.In any case the first law is valid in both the forward and reverse direction of the process. You have also learnt about the concept of entropy which is a measure of the randomness or the disorder in a system. This concept helps in explaining the spontaneity of the irreversible processes. For an irreversible process, the entropy of the system and surroundings taken together i. e. of the universe increases, while for a process at equilibrium it remains constant. This conclusion is of great importance as it helps us to predict whether a given process can take place spontaneously or not.Since a ll processes in nature occur spontaneously i. e. irreversibly, it follows that the entropy of the universe is increasing continuously. This important statement i. e. â€Å"in any spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe (system and surroundings) always increases† is also known as the second law of thermodynamics. ?SUniverse = ? Ssystem + ? Ssurroundings Specifically it means that If ? SUniverse > 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? SUniverse < 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ? SUniverse = 0, the reaction is at equilibriumSince chemists are generally more interested in the system (reaction mixture) than the surroundings, it is therefore more convenient to restate the second law in terms of the thermodynamic properties of the system, without regard to the surroundings. As already described in the previous section, this is possible through the Gibbs free energy G which for a system is defined as G = H – TS. In terms of this thermodynamic property, the second law of thermodynamics can be restated as in any spontaneous process at 13 constant temperature and pressure, the free energy of the system (? Gsystem) always decreases.According to this definition If ? Gsystem < 0, the reaction is spontaneous If ? Gsystem > 0, the reaction is non-spontaneous If ?Gsystem = 0, the reaction is at equilibrium 6. 8. THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The third law of thermodynamics is concerned with determination of entropy. It states that a substance which is perfectly crystalline at absolute zero of temperature has an entropy of zero. In a perfect crystal at absolute zero of temperature, each constituent of the crystal (atom, molecule or ion) is at the proper crystal lattice site and it therefore has the lowest energy.This means that this particular state is of perfect order, i. e, has zero disorder and hence zero entropy. Using zero value of entropy at absolute zero for a perfectly crystalline substance as the reference point (initial state), on e can calculate absolute value of entropy of the substance in any state (solid, liquid or gas) at any temperature by calculating ? S for the process/es in going from the initial state to the state of the substance for which entropy is to be calculated. However there are certain substances which possess certain entropy even at absolute zero.This entropy is known as residual entropy. The origin of residual entropy can be explained on the basis of the disorder which remains at absolute zero in certain crystals composed of AB types of molecules where A and B are similar atoms (as in CO). In such substances, there is a very little energy difference between â€Å"†¦AB AB AB†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å".. †¦AB BA BA AB†¦.. † and other arrangements so that the molecules adopt the orientations AB and BA at random in the solid. This gives rise to some disorder, also known as frozen disorder, and consequently residual entropy.For example in case of CO, the measured residual entropy is 5 J K-1 mol-1 which is close to the value expected for a random structure Figure 1 (B) of the form â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦CO CO OC CO CO OC OC†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . 14 Figure 1. Alternative molecular arrangements for CO (A) Perfect crystal (B) Actual crystal EXERCISE 1. State Second Law of Thermodynamics. 2. Write the conditions in terms of ? H and ? S when a reaction would be always spontaneous. 3. When ? H > 0 and ? S < 0, a reaction is never spontaneous. Explain. 4. Comment on the spontaneity of a reaction at constant temperature and pressure in the following cases i) ? H < 0 and ? S > 0 (ii) ? H > 0 and ? S < 0 (iii) ? H < 0 and ? S < 0 (iv) ? H > 0 and ? S > 0 5. State third law of thermodynamics. 6. Explain the term residual entropy. 15 Unit 7: Equilibrium 7. 12. 1 pH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS : HENDERSON – HASSELBALCH EQUATION As you have already learnt in the previous section a buffer solution is a solution which resists change in its pH on t he addition of small amount of acid or a base. Most of the important buffer solutions generally consist of mixtures of weak acids and their salts or weak bases and their salts.These buffer solutions are known as acidic buffers and basic buffers respectively. If the pH of the buffer solution is less than 7, it is called an acidic buffer and if the pH of the buffer solution is greater than 7 it is called a basic buffer. Examples of some acidic and basic buffers are as given below Acidic buffer Basic buffer 1) Acetic acid and sodium acetate 1) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride 2) Formic acid and sodium formate 2) Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate pH of an acidic buffer A very common example of an acidic buffer is a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.Acetic acid, being a weak acid, is very slightly dissociated, while sodium acetate being a salt is completely dissociated. The mixture thus contains acetic acid molecules as well acetate ions and sodium ions. At equilibr ium: CH3COOH(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3COO-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get 16 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 39) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 40) It may be noted that the concentration of the acetate ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because the acetate ions coming from fully dissociated salt (here sodium acetate) suppress the ionization of the weak acid (acetic acid). This equation (7. 0) is called Henderson- Hasselbalch equation. According to this equation, the pH of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its salt depends on the pKa of the acid, and the concentrations of the salt and acid in the mixture. If concentration of the salt is equal to that of the acid, then Buffer action of Acidic buffer The buffer action of an acidic buffer consisting of a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate can be explained in the following way. If we add small amount of HCl to the buffer solution it will ionise to give H+ ions. These combine with CH3COO- ions to form weakly ionized acetic acid.CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) ? CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) Since H+ ions get neutralised by CH3COO- ions, there will be no change in pH. On the other hand, if we add a few drops of NaOH to the buffer solution, it provides OH- ions which are neutralized by the acetic acid present in the mixture. 17 OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ? CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) Therefore the pH of the solution remains unchanged. pH of a Basic Buffer A very common example of a basic buffer is a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride. Ammonium hydroxide being a weak base is very slightly dissociated, while ammonium chloride being a salt is completely dissociated.The mixture thus contains ammonium hydroxide molecules as well as ammonium ions and chloride ions. At equilibrium, NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) Taking the negative logarithm on both the sides, we get †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 41) In general, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦(7. 42) 18 It may be noted that the concentration of the ammonium ions is taken to be almost equal to the concentration of the salt because ammonium ions coming from the fully dissociated salt (here ammonium chloride) suppress the ionization of the weak base ammonium hydroxide. This equation (7. 42) is called Henderson- Hasselblach equation. Further, pH can be calculated easily from pOH using Hence,It may be noted that pKa + pKb = 14 Buffer action of basic buffer The buffer action of a basic buffer consisting of a mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride can be explained in the following way. If a few drops of HCl are added to the buffer solution, it will ionise to give H+ ion which will combine with OH- ions to form H2O. H+(aq) + OH- (aq) ? H2O(l) Therefore, the addition of HCl will not change the pH. On the other hand, when a few drops of NaOH solution are added to the buffer solution, it would give OH- ions. These OH- ions combine with NH4+ ions present in the solution to form NH4OH, which is only slightly ionised.OH-(aq) + NH4+ (aq) ? NH4OH(aq) Hence, the addition of a base also will not change the pH. 19 EXERCISE 1. A certain buffer is made by mixing sodium formate and formic acid in water. With the help of equations explain how this buffer neutralizes addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 2. A basic buffer is made by mixing ammonium hydroxide and ammonium nitrate in water. Explain how this buffer resists change in its pH on addition of a small amount of an acid or a base. 3. What would be the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 10 g of acetic acid and 15 g of sodium acetate and making the volume equal to 1 L.Dissociation constant of acetic acid at 25oC is 1. 75 x 10-5. 4. A buffer solution contains 0. 40 mol of ammonium hydroxide and 0. 50 mol of ammonium chloride to make a buffer solution of 1 L. Calculate the pH of the resulting buffer s olution. Dissociation constant of ammonium hydroxide at 25oC is 1. 81 x 10-5. Answers 3. pH = 4. 80 4. 9. 161 20 Class XII Unit 16: Chemistry in Everyday Life 16. 4. 2. 1. ANTIOXIDANTS Antioxidants are one of the important and necessary food additives. These compounds retard the action of oxygen on food thus reducing its speed of decomposition by oxidation. Hence they help in the preservation of food.These act as sacrificial materials, i. e. these are more reactive towards oxygen than are the materials they are protecting. They also reduce the rate of involvement of free radicals in the aging process. Examples: The two most familiar antioxidants used are butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) (Figure 1). These phenolic compounds are added to preserve fats in packaged food. Oxygen reacts preferentially with BHA or BHT rather than oxidizing fats or oils, thereby protecting them from spoilage. The addition of BHA to butter increases its storage life from mo nths to years.Sometimes, BHT and BHA are added in combination with citric or ascorbic acids to produce a more active synergetic effect. Figure 1: Butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA) Sulphur dioxide and sulphites ( such as sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphite and sodium metabisulphite) are useful antioxidants for wine and beers, sugars syrups and cut, peeled or dried fruits and vegetables. They prevent or reduce their discoloration. 21 EXERCISE 1. Name one antioxidant commonly used to increase the storage life of butter. 2. Name one antioxidant used in wine and beers. 22a

Paul Watzlawick’s First Axiom Essay

Paul Watzlawick was an Austrian-born psychotherapist, psychoanalytic, sociologist and philosopher. He was best recognized for his venture in schizophrenia, as well as his communication theory regarding the five axioms. (Sack, Herald) His first axiom – â€Å"one cannot not communicate† – states that no matter how much a person tries not to communicate, there will some forms of communication going on. (Blanford, Roxanne) Watzlawick believed that every little behavior sends a message, regardless whether it’s intentional or otherwise. Therefore, all behavior has communicative value. When I first read about his theory, I honestly thought that it was unreasonable. Personally, I thought that sometimes unintentional actions do not mean that one is sending any form of communication. However, according to Kit Welchlin, a well-known public speaker, he states that â€Å"no matter what you say, or don’t say, people apply a meaning to it†. He gave an example of his observation on how the value of a co-worker from a marble factory was recognized by the messages that the manager sent through his actions. In addition, Eric Myers, founder and C. E. O. of Myers Business Diagnostics and Solutions LLC, said that people can make â€Å"judgment calls† to the non-verbal actions that the other is showing. â€Å"Words is only 7% of communication, body language 55%, and tone 38%†, Myers’ said at one of his talks. Another person who agreed to the theory is Dr. Amy Gaffney, an assistant professor from University of Kentucky. She believes that many people don’t always realize that anything that they do could â€Å"potentially be perceived as a form of communication†. She gave a simple example of how a student who’s nervously presenting in front would react to her â€Å"funny face† that she made because of the other noisy students behind her class. Besides the three influential speakers/researchers that I’ve mentioned above, there were also many other researchers whom have agreed at some point towards Watzlawick’s theory. So, I decided to conduct a personal experiment, with my brother as the subject of matter. I purposely picked him up late from his work place one day, and I observed his actions and behavior – which includes expressions, as he walked towards my car. I found out that although he did not mention that he was a bit irritated by my lateness, but his little fidgets and frowning of the eyebrows gave away. The findings of this experiment, combined with some additional researches, changed my perception towards Watzlawick’s theory. In short – I agree to Watzlawick’s First Axiom of â€Å"One Cannot Not Communicate†. Since every of our behavior may be perceived as a form of communication, there will be times where our behavior doesn’t actually convey the message that we want to convey. These are called â€Å"unintentional communication†. One very good example is when someone is deep in thought, and so happen the person’s eyes are facing your direction. You would start to wonder why the person is looking at you, but in actual fact, the person isn’t. A man who’s wearing a suit and drives a luxurious car doesn’t necessarily mean that he’s rich. But to the eyes of others, that person might be misperceived as rich. In a nutshell, Watzlawick’s theory of â€Å"One Cannot Not Communicate† is true, but to a certain extent, because not all behavior actually conveys the message that the person wants to convey.

Fake Blood Recipes for Stage or Screen